Hartford Bound
Land Acknowledgement

The University of Connecticut’s Office for Diversity and Inclusion worked with the three co-founders of the Akomawt Educational Initiative to create a land acknowledgment that rightfully recognizes the history of Native peoples’ territories.

Any exploration of how Hartford became home begins with acknowledging that the land on which we gather in Connecticut is the territory of the Mohegan, Mashantucket Pequot, Eastern Pequot, Schaghticoke, Golden Hill Paugussett, Nipmuc, and Lenape Peoples, who have stewarded this land throughout the generations. We thank them for their strength and resilience in protecting this land and aspire to uphold our responsibilities according to their example

Land Acknowledgement

The University of Connecticut’s Office for Diversity and Inclusion worked with the three co-founders of the Akomawt Educational Initiative to create a land acknowledgment that rightfully recognizes the history of Native peoples’ territories.

Any exploration of how Hartford became home begins with acknowledging that the land on which we gather in Connecticut is the territory of the Mohegan, Mashantucket Pequot, Eastern Pequot, Schaghticoke, Golden Hill Paugussett, Nipmuc, and Lenape Peoples, who have stewarded this land throughout the generations. We thank them for their strength and resilience in protecting this land and aspire to uphold our responsibilities according to their example

Maps

Maps

City Boundaries

City and Town

Hartford In Context

Black Roots

Origins

College Workers

Jamaica

CT Tobacco Valley

Racial And Ethnic Distribution

Population Drift and Ethnic Succession

Cemetery Lane

North End

Puerto Ricans

West Indians

Foreign-Born Population

Ethnic and Racial Distribution

Ethnic and Racial Distribution

Population Drift and Community Succession

Population Drift and Community Succession

19th Century Mobility

Canadians

Italians - Irish - Russians

Irish

Italians

Polish

Russians

Settlement

Settlement

African American Settlement
African American Settlement
In what journalist Isabel Wilkerson calls a “silent pilgrimage” and others harken to a Biblical exodus, African Americans left the South. By foot, train, cars, and buses, they fled violence, poverty, the suppression of their vote, political disenfranchisement, and the stunted life chances of their children. By 1970, six million African Americans had embarked on the Great Migration to major urban centers, the largest mass movement of peoples of African descent after the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Like the centuries of involuntary migration that preceded it, the Great Migration would reshape American cities. By 1920, forty percent of the African American population in Hartford identified their original home as Georgia, outpacing the local population. Fifteen percent originated from the Carolinas and Virginia. Americus, Plains, Ellaville, and other Georgian locales kindled a long pattern of chain migration to Hartford that would register profoundly in the residential makeup of the North End of Hartford.
In what journalist Isabel Wilkerson calls a “silent pilgrimage” and others harken to a Biblical exodus, African Americans left the South. By foot, train, cars, and buses, they fled violence, poverty, the suppression of their vote, political disenfranchisement, and the stunted life chances of their children. By 1970, six million African Americans had embarked on the Great Migration to major urban centers, the largest mass movement of peoples of African descent after the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Like the centuries of involuntary migration that preceded it, the Great Migration would reshape American cities. By 1920, forty percent of the African American population in Hartford identified their original home as Georgia, outpacing the local population. Fifteen percent originated from the Carolinas and Virginia. Americus, Plains, Ellaville, and other Georgian locales kindled a long pattern of chain migration to Hartford that would register profoundly in the residential makeup of the North End of Hartford.
Puerto Rican Settlement
Puerto Rican Settlement
Between 1950 and 1960, 470,000 people, or approximately one-fifth of Puerto Rico’s population, relocated to the United States. The Jones Act of 1917 granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, making relocation to the mainland far easier in principle than other groups impacted by the restrictive immigration policies that closed US borders for the next four decades. New York attracted the vast majority of these sojourners. Some embarked on a secondary migration to explore other residential and employment opportunities and to join family members. Farm labor programs offering employment also played an important role in facilitating the initial transportation to the United States. These programs recruited 421,238 Puerto Ricans workers between 1948 and 1990, the second largest mobilization of seasonal laborers after the Mexican Bracero program. These migratory and labor flows have transformed Hartford into a Puerto Rican city, with shifting concentrations in the North and South End.
Between 1950 and 1960, 470,000 people, or approximately one-fifth of Puerto Rico’s population, relocated to the United States. The Jones Act of 1917 granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, making relocation to the mainland far easier in principle than other groups impacted by the restrictive immigration policies that closed US borders for the next four decades. New York attracted the vast majority of these sojourners. Some embarked on a secondary migration to explore other residential and employment opportunities and to join family members. Farm labor programs offering employment also played an important role in facilitating the initial transportation to the United States. These programs recruited 421,238 Puerto Ricans workers between 1948 and 1990, the second largest mobilization of seasonal laborers after the Mexican Bracero program. These migratory and labor flows have transformed Hartford into a Puerto Rican city, with shifting concentrations in the North and South End.
West Indian Settlement
West Indian Settlement
Caribbean residents participated in a long tradition of what scholars call circum-Caribbean migration that brought them to Costa Rica, Cuba, and Panama between the 1870-1920s. New York featured prominently as the primary port of entry and residence for the first major enclave of West Indian migrants in the United States in the twentieth-century. When World War II ushered in new opportunities to hire foreign guest workers, twenty-four states recruited British West Indians for industrial and agricultural work. New York, Florida, and Connecticut drew the most recruits and relied consistently on them throughout and after the war, while other states used them intermittently. These diasporas established post-emancipation traditions of mobility and created new spaces for black men and women to recast and renegotiate their labor and their identities. From a few hundred people in the 1950s, West Indians became the largest population of foreign-born immigrants in Connecticut in 2010, a demographic profile that shaped Hartford as a Caribbean city.
Caribbean residents participated in a long tradition of what scholars call circum-Caribbean migration that brought them to Costa Rica, Cuba, and Panama between the 1870-1920s. New York featured prominently as the primary port of entry and residence for the first major enclave of West Indian migrants in the United States in the twentieth-century. When World War II ushered in new opportunities to hire foreign guest workers, twenty-four states recruited British West Indians for industrial and agricultural work. New York, Florida, and Connecticut drew the most recruits and relied consistently on them throughout and after the war, while other states used them intermittently. These diasporas established post-emancipation traditions of mobility and created new spaces for black men and women to recast and renegotiate their labor and their identities. From a few hundred people in the 1950s, West Indians became the largest population of foreign-born immigrants in Connecticut in 2010, a demographic profile that shaped Hartford as a Caribbean city.

Housing

Housing

Post WWII Housing Crisis
Post WWII Housing Crisis
World War II ushered in a period of intense demographic shifts that intersected with a housing crisis that was already half a century in the making. The nation’s citizens deployed overseas to various theaters of war, leaving a gaping demand for industrial, manufacturing, and agricultural labor. The United States turned to its neighbors in the Caribbean to fill these temporary shortages and the boom economy spurred many people to move to major urban centers. Everyone was on the move—from white communities of various ethnic backgrounds to African Americans, West Indians, and Puerto Ricans. Following the war, the US owed a debt to veterans and the auxiliary civilian population that had contributed to the war effort. The war-time and post- war housing crisis led to policy interventions focused on slum clearance and the construction of public housing. The New England area needed 400,00 new homes with Connecticut facing a shortage of 80,000 new housing units.
World War II ushered in a period of intense demographic shifts that intersected with a housing crisis that was already half a century in the making. The nation’s citizens deployed overseas to various theaters of war, leaving a gaping demand for industrial, manufacturing, and agricultural labor. The United States turned to its neighbors in the Caribbean to fill these temporary shortages and the boom economy spurred many people to move to major urban centers. Everyone was on the move—from white communities of various ethnic backgrounds to African Americans, West Indians, and Puerto Ricans. Following the war, the US owed a debt to veterans and the auxiliary civilian population that had contributed to the war effort. The war-time and post- war housing crisis led to policy interventions focused on slum clearance and the construction of public housing. The New England area needed 400,00 new homes with Connecticut facing a shortage of 80,000 new housing units.
Public Housing
Public Housing
Relief strengthening infrastructure collective impact leverage then. Strengthening infrastructure thought leader scale and impact, commitment, collective impact social innovation mobilize move the needle vibrant. The resistance bandwidth thought provoking the resistance change-makers shared vocabulary. Transparent save the world activate external partners equal opportunity. Social entrepreneurship design thinking, targeted, milestones challenges and opportunities white paper. Indicators compassion blended value disrupt relief. Mobilize parse sustainable inspirational circular empathetic, shared unit of analysis blended value collective impact. Accessibility transparent venture philanthropy; boots on the ground resist shared unit of analysis shine support peaceful. Co-creation systems thinking humanitarian social entrepreneur systems thinking preliminary thinking. Ideate; philanthropy vibrant social return on investment, social entrepreneurship initiative capacity building white paper.
Relief strengthening infrastructure collective impact leverage then. Strengthening infrastructure thought leader scale and impact, commitment, collective impact social innovation mobilize move the needle vibrant. The resistance bandwidth thought provoking the resistance change-makers shared vocabulary. Transparent save the world activate external partners equal opportunity. Social entrepreneurship design thinking, targeted, milestones challenges and opportunities white paper. Indicators compassion blended value disrupt relief. Mobilize parse sustainable inspirational circular empathetic, shared unit of analysis blended value collective impact. Accessibility transparent venture philanthropy; boots on the ground resist shared unit of analysis shine support peaceful. Co-creation systems thinking humanitarian social entrepreneur systems thinking preliminary thinking. Ideate; philanthropy vibrant social return on investment, social entrepreneurship initiative capacity building white paper.
Charter Oak Terrace
Charter Oak Terrace
With 1000 units Charter Oak Terrace held the promise of addressing the severe shortage of affordable housing in Hartford. The unit located at Flatbush and Newfield Avenues, and Dart and Chandler Streets, had twice the occupancy of Bellevue Square and opened in 1941. Whereas Bellevue Square sat on 12.5 acres, Charter Oak Terrace covered 124 acres. The design, like other public housing units, encompassed recreational, educational, medical, and religious services. The Hartford Good Will Boys’ Club hosted recreational activities and the Christian Activities Council of Hartford conducted Sunday School and Church Services. Children attended the local community school at Mary Hooker School, which like the housing complex, was new. This planned community represented both an important policy intervention and a particular vision of urban planning. Children would have access to education, healthcare and religious services, and would be reared in a wholesome environment that promoted family values.
With 1000 units Charter Oak Terrace held the promise of addressing the severe shortage of affordable housing in Hartford. The unit located at Flatbush and Newfield Avenues, and Dart and Chandler Streets, had twice the occupancy of Bellevue Square and opened in 1941. Whereas Bellevue Square sat on 12.5 acres, Charter Oak Terrace covered 124 acres. The design, like other public housing units, encompassed recreational, educational, medical, and religious services. The Hartford Good Will Boys’ Club hosted recreational activities and the Christian Activities Council of Hartford conducted Sunday School and Church Services. Children attended the local community school at Mary Hooker School, which like the housing complex, was new. This planned community represented both an important policy intervention and a particular vision of urban planning. Children would have access to education, healthcare and religious services, and would be reared in a wholesome environment that promoted family values.
Bellevue Square
Bellevue Square
For the African American families who turned to public housing to address the severe shortage of suitable accommodations in Hartford, the possibility of a better standard of living was a real promise. Not only was it difficult to find suitable places to live, even with high rents many accommodations had no heat and hot water; ice had to be bought from the trucks on the street and clothes had to be ironed with a heavy metal iron. Florence Kiser Price Wollaston, who grew up at Bellevue Square, recalls how her parents moved around in the 1940s trying to find the right apartment in Hartford. The family moved up and down Canton Street in the 1940s, which would constantly flood at its intersection with Bellevue Street. Her father helped to build the dike to prevent these floods. Each move the Wollaston family made was in search of a better place to live.
For the African American families who turned to public housing to address the severe shortage of suitable accommodations in Hartford, the possibility of a better standard of living was a real promise. Not only was it difficult to find suitable places to live, even with high rents many accommodations had no heat and hot water; ice had to be bought from the trucks on the street and clothes had to be ironed with a heavy metal iron. Florence Kiser Price Wollaston, who grew up at Bellevue Square, recalls how her parents moved around in the 1940s trying to find the right apartment in Hartford. The family moved up and down Canton Street in the 1940s, which would constantly flood at its intersection with Bellevue Street. Her father helped to build the dike to prevent these floods. Each move the Wollaston family made was in search of a better place to live.
Redlining
Redlining
The Great Depression devastated families across the United States, unleashed a wave of foreclosures, and spawned a major crisis in the housing sector. The federal government created a new infrastructure to facilitate home ownership by changing the way people financed and insured their homes. The National Housing Act of 1934 established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation. This framework, which gave us our current system of 30-year mortgages, laid the foundation for racial discrimination in the housing market. Using the language of risk management, the FHA supported the classification of neighborhoods according to their demographic profile. The process known as redlining coded maps according to the desirability and viability of loans in particular communities. Many of Hartford’s ethnic and racial minorities lived in neighborhood branded Grades C or D, the two lowest categories, making them ineligible for federally-backed loans.
The Great Depression devastated families across the United States, unleashed a wave of foreclosures, and spawned a major crisis in the housing sector. The federal government created a new infrastructure to facilitate home ownership by changing the way people financed and insured their homes. The National Housing Act of 1934 established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation. This framework, which gave us our current system of 30-year mortgages, laid the foundation for racial discrimination in the housing market. Using the language of risk management, the FHA supported the classification of neighborhoods according to their demographic profile. The process known as redlining coded maps according to the desirability and viability of loans in particular communities. Many of Hartford’s ethnic and racial minorities lived in neighborhood branded Grades C or D, the two lowest categories, making them ineligible for federally-backed loans.
Home Ownership
Home Ownership
Social entrepreneur circular then inclusive the resistance progress replicable. Incubator then boots on the ground innovate cultivate. Her body her rights, correlation think tank correlation empower entrepreneur scale and impact. Strengthening infrastructure issue outcomes replicable agile; correlation, segmentation accessibility correlation. When when, synergy accessibility targeted; collaborate. Her body her rights innovation communities inclusive incubator improve the world ideate thought leadership. Do-gooder scale and impact shared vocabulary co-create indicators improve the world. Grit outcomes; challenges and opportunities, innovate move the needle commitment. Humanitarian a replicable uplift energize compelling changemaker. Shared unit of analysis synergy collaborate mass incarceration equal opportunity global collaborative consumption.
Social entrepreneur circular then inclusive the resistance progress replicable. Incubator then boots on the ground innovate cultivate. Her body her rights, correlation think tank correlation empower entrepreneur scale and impact. Strengthening infrastructure issue outcomes replicable agile; correlation, segmentation accessibility correlation. When when, synergy accessibility targeted; collaborate. Her body her rights innovation communities inclusive incubator improve the world ideate thought leadership. Do-gooder scale and impact shared vocabulary co-create indicators improve the world. Grit outcomes; challenges and opportunities, innovate move the needle commitment. Humanitarian a replicable uplift energize compelling changemaker. Shared unit of analysis synergy collaborate mass incarceration equal opportunity global collaborative consumption.
Slumlords Now, Slumlords Then
Slumlords Now, Slumlords Then
Even middle income families facing poor housing choices can have their health and job prospects ruined when they have to spend emotional and financial capital addressing horrendous living conditions. Hartford again made headlines when the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) terminated the contract of New York’s infamous landlord, Emmanuel Ku. After years of inadequate maintenance and deplorable living conditions that posed a risk to his tenants’ health and safety, tenants and community activists finally won their bid to oust Ku. An organized group of tenants demonstrated that ordinary people could win against a wealthy, unscrupulous landlord. HUD’s regime of inspections continues to fail many of the clients who rely on the agency to certify that housing units are suitable for occupancy.
Even middle income families facing poor housing choices can have their health and job prospects ruined when they have to spend emotional and financial capital addressing horrendous living conditions. Hartford again made headlines when the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) terminated the contract of New York’s infamous landlord, Emmanuel Ku. After years of inadequate maintenance and deplorable living conditions that posed a risk to his tenants’ health and safety, tenants and community activists finally won their bid to oust Ku. An organized group of tenants demonstrated that ordinary people could win against a wealthy, unscrupulous landlord. HUD’s regime of inspections continues to fail many of the clients who rely on the agency to certify that housing units are suitable for occupancy.
Housing Code Violation
Housing Code Violation
MICE. MOLD. BED BUGS. POOR VENTILATION. LACK OF HEAT. BROKEN WINDOWS. MISSING SCREENS. These violations are legion among properties owned by slumlords, yet often fall through the cracks based on inspection protocols that emphasize the exterior of the building. In many instances, misperceptions about the character of the tenants may lead the public to make value judgments about what people living in public housing deserve. The No More Slumlords movement has worked to change these perceptions. New horizons remain in the struggle.
MICE. MOLD. BED BUGS. POOR VENTILATION. LACK OF HEAT. BROKEN WINDOWS. MISSING SCREENS. These violations are legion among properties owned by slumlords, yet often fall through the cracks based on inspection protocols that emphasize the exterior of the building. In many instances, misperceptions about the character of the tenants may lead the public to make value judgments about what people living in public housing deserve. The No More Slumlords movement has worked to change these perceptions. New horizons remain in the struggle.
The No More Slumlords Campaign
The No More Slumlords Campaign
The No More Slumlords campaign has become a beacon for other residents interested in addressing substandard and unsafe conditions in their housing units. Since that pivotal victory, resident-leaders like Teri Morrison, Milagros Ortiz, and Joshua Serrano have attended dozens of tenant meetings rallies, public hearings, panel discussions, and coalition meetings to remind the public that the work has only just begun. Overhauling Hartford’s outdated, ineffectual municipal housing code was one new prong in the movement; navigating the challenge of relocating to another unit proved to be another. Some families, like Milagros Ortiz’s, have had to move more than once, while others have left the state because of the limited resettlement options. Housing conditions have proven no better in some instances and many tenants have expressed distress about how dispersal has atomized the sense of community.
The No More Slumlords campaign has become a beacon for other residents interested in addressing substandard and unsafe conditions in their housing units. Since that pivotal victory, resident-leaders like Teri Morrison, Milagros Ortiz, and Joshua Serrano have attended dozens of tenant meetings rallies, public hearings, panel discussions, and coalition meetings to remind the public that the work has only just begun. Overhauling Hartford’s outdated, ineffectual municipal housing code was one new prong in the movement; navigating the challenge of relocating to another unit proved to be another. Some families, like Milagros Ortiz’s, have had to move more than once, while others have left the state because of the limited resettlement options. Housing conditions have proven no better in some instances and many tenants have expressed distress about how dispersal has atomized the sense of community.

Timeline

Timeline